“Is God the author of suffering?” “Is my suffering because of my sin?” These
and similar questions have disturbed people belonging to different faith. It
however, seems that these questions are worthy of understanding and it takes a
lot of our attention. No matter what answers religions offer it goes back to
their own actions. However, Christianity answers the best to the problem of
suffering and sin than does any other religion. In Buddhism ‘existence entails
suffering.’[1]
It is the part of reality rather than consequence to sin. In contrast
Christianity teaches that life is a blessing from God but because of sin which
is prevalent in the world humans suffer. However, in Buddhism because life is
considered as suffering every person wants to be liberated from this evil.
This
paper attempts to study the concept of suffering in Buddhism in the light of
the idea of Doha, Kamma and Ajana (Pali words for Sin, Action and Ignorance) which will be then compared with
Christianity. Further an attempt is made to build a bridge to communicate and
engage with Buddhists by bringing out the idea of sin through the five precepts
and suffering. Thus this paper will have philosophical approach and and later a
comparative analytical method.
1. SOME PRELIMINARIES
1:1 Research Statement
In order
to be free from suffering and to attain Nirvana every Buddhist is supposed to
keep the fundamental five precepts. If a person breaks any of the prescribed
precepts it is equivalent to committing sin. The best ground to communicate the
gospel to the Buddhist is by building a connecting bridge by highlighting the
notion of Sin which can be traced in Buddhism and connect it with the Biblical
understanding of Sin. And how Jesus is the one who removes our transgressions
and gives us hope of eternal life where there is no Suffering.
1:2 Objectives
This
paper attempts to study the concept of suffering in Buddhism in the light of
the five precepts, the law of moral causation and suffering which will be then
compared with Christianity. Further paper attempts to build a bridge to
effectively and intelligently engage and communicate the gospel to the Buddhist
world. It is achieved by tracing the notion of Doha (Sin) in Buddhism and attempting to dialogue that Dukkha (Suffering) is not an end in
itself. There is much more to life and the abundant life can be enjoyed in
Jesus Christ amidst suffering and pain.
1:3 Methodology
This
paper is adapting the Philosophical and Comparative Methodology. While doing
so, this paper will also be taking a missional perspective, since the topic the
researcher is dealing with demands to be missiological in nature.
1:4 Scope and Limitation
The
major scope of this research paper is to show continuities with suffering as a
bridge to evangelize the Buddhists. For doing this, the researcher attempts to
bring out the notion of sin through the fundamental five precepts of Buddhism
and stating that the Desire is not the reason for suffering but Sin.
While
bringing out the concept of sin through the fundamental five precepts and the
concept of the law of moral causation, the paper will not be dealing with the
historical aspect of Buddhism, metaphysical teachings such as the three
existences of life, the noble path to attain Nibbana (Pali word for liberation, the Sanskrit word is Nirvana). However, while stating this,
quick reference will be made of the above issues in order to bring a proper
transition to the methodology which the researcher will be using.
1:5 Research Question
The
research paper deals with a primary question, how can a bridge be built to
effectively communicate the Gospel of Jesus Christ to the Buddhist? What can be
the bridge to bring out the continuities with suffering to evangelize the
Gospel effectively and intelligently to the Buddhist world? Further it deals with
a question, “How can desire be the reason for suffering?” and what is the cause
of evil desire and how suffering is related to it?
2. THE IDEA OF SIN AND SUFFERING
IN BUDDHISM
In order to be free from suffering and to
attain Nirvana every Buddhist is supposed to keep the fundamental five
precepts. If any of the prescribed precepts are violated then it is equivalent
to committing sin. Buddhist has to faithfully follow the eight fold path so
that they don’t break the precepts. A
person can follow the eight fold path only if he believes in the four noble
truths.
2:1The Law of Karma
As this
paper attempts to bring out the concept of sin in Buddhism through the law of
moral causation, it becomes vital that one understand Karma since it is associated with the law of moral causation. The
law of Karma will be understood in
the definition of Karma.
2:1:1
What is Karma?
According
to Dhammananda, ‘Karma is an
impersonal, natural law that operates in accordance with our actions. It is a
law in itself and does not have any law-giver. Karma operates in its own field
without the intervention of an external, independent, ruling agent’.[2]
In
simple words Karma means what you sow
so shall you reap. The other name for this term is the law of moral causation.
It means both good and bad, mental action or volition. The law of Karma describes the connection between
actions and the resulting forces, as follows: wholesome actions lead to
wholesome states while unwholesome actions lead to unwholesome states. The
quality of actions can be described in ethical terms, simply as either good or
bad. The Five precepts (pañca-sīlāni) in Buddhism gives proper meaning
to wholesome and unwholesome acts. These five precepts are a condensed form of
Buddhist ethical practice.
Furthermore,
these ethical practices are very much intertwined with Karma. The reason is that these ethical practices have the energy
to create some karmic results. That’s why in his book What Buddhists Believe Dhammananda explains that ‘Karma being a form of energy is not
found anywhere in this fleeting consciousness or body’.[3]
He further comments that ‘Karma is like a wind or fire. It is not stored up
anywhere in the Universe but comes into being under certain conditions.’[4]
Thus the
moral and immoral actions produce their results immediately in this life
itself. Morality in Buddhism serves the most important purpose of directing or
guiding the people to attain Nirvana.
Here the notion of self effort is promoted. A person will be liberated by his
or her own moral development.
The
theory of Buddhist ethics finds its practical expression in the various
precepts.[5]
These precept or commands thus leads the people to find their way to final
salvation or Nirvana. Shakyamuni in
the Dhammapada summarises the fundamentals of Buddhism which was laid down by
the Buddha – ‘To avoid evil; to do good, to purify the mind.’[6]
3. PRECEPTS IN BUDDHISM
The
teachings in Buddhism is been considered as the most reflective and wholesome
education directed by the Buddha towards all people.[7]
The prospectus of Buddhist teaching is to observe the precepts which not only
cultivates the moral strength of the people but also benefits the society by
the people’s highest service but if one breaks precepts is considered as sin or
morally wrong.
3.1The Five Precepts
The five
precepts are divided into two aspects. First, it enables people to live
together in civilized communities with mutual trust and respect.[8]
Second, it is the starting point for the spiritual journey towards Liberation.[9]
Every good Buddhist must follow these precepts sincerely and honestly. They are
i) not killing any living creatures ; ii) taking what is not given; iii) sexual
misconduct; iv) false speech; v) taking intoxicating drugs and liquor.[10]
These
five precepts if practiced faithfully it will make the person to practice the
five ennoblers. The five precepts guides them in not doing certain bad things
whereas, the five ennoblers will guide the person to cultivate qualities such
as ‘loving kindness, renunciation, contentment, truthfulness and mindfulness.’[11]
The
observance of these five precepts will further make a person to develop his or
her personality positively which will be filled with love and care and
consequently store good karma for him or her. The purpose of the faithful
adherence to these precepts is because this will make a person get rid of all
kinds of evil passions which are expressed through thought, word or deed. And
moreover, the honest adherence to these precepts will stop a person to go to
the four evil planes of existence.
However,
to follow the five precepts one has to exercise Samadhi and Panna - the Eight
Fold Noble Path so that the person will be kept away from committing offenses.
By observing Sila, Samadhi, Panna will be developed. Thus the person is on the
right path to attain Nirvana. This is
possible because by observing these paths the person will do what is right. He
or she will be free from all kinds of selfishness, ill-will, hatred, jealousy
etc. and will have the assurance of Nirvana.
According
to Buddha one must by his or her efforts cultivate the positive aspects of the
five precepts so that a higher consciousness will be attained.[12]
This leads to a good, righteous and happy life. When a good act is repeated for
sometimes it becomes a habit. Thus the reproductive power of the mind will
develop oneself to counter react to feelings which have to be abstained. Thus
the tendency to become angry will be changed to loving kindness and compassion.
And when these habits are been repeated time and again those vices will be
eliminated from the mind just as ‘the darkness of the night fades away before
the dawn of the rising sun’.[13]
This method which has been given by Buddha if followed faithfully then a person
is on the way to attain Liberation or Nirvana.
Thus a sincere and a skillful mind will cultivate themselves in observing the
Precepts, by following the Middle Way or the Eight Fold Noble Path. This will
in turn help them to avoid actions that are likely to cause Suffering.
But by
any chance if the person is unable to keep up with the precepts and breaks even
one of them then there is a little chance for the person to have assurance of Nirvana. Not only that, non observance
of any one or the whole five precepts is equivalent to committing Sin. Thus a
person will not inherit the blissful stage of existence but the four woeful or
unhappy states of existence, which is, animal, hungry ghost, hell, and demon.
According
to Buddhism, the desire which makes the person to do or want anything is the
cause of all Suffering. Suffering is because people are in Ignorance about the
facts of life. In order to eliminate Suffering people must know the four noble
truths of which the Buddha had been enlightened of.
4. BUDDHA’S TEACHING ON THE
UNDERSTANDING OF DUKKHA
The
inexhaustible theme seen in Buddhism is that ‘all of life is nothing but
suffering.’ The four sacred truths of the Buddhists treat of suffering
(Dukkha), the cause of suffering (Tanha), the cessation of suffering (Nirodha),
the path leading to the end of dukkha (Magga).[14]
The
removal of suffering is the word and the idea of suffering which gives the
key-note to Buddhist thought.[15]
These four truths make the essence of Buddhism. Buddha determined to know the
answer to all the miseries in this life took many steps of knowledge and
toilsome journey which brought him to no avail. However, on that night under
the Acvattha tree at Uruvela, the four truths at last dawn on him; they become
the keystone of his knowledge[16];
now he is the Enlightened One, the Buddha. According to the Buddhists ignorance
of the four noble truths is the ‘most deeply hidden root of all the suffering
in the universe’.[17]Thus
these four truths become the most prominent announcements of Buddha sharing
first with his five disciples in Benares. He announced, “Open ye your ears, ye
monks; the deliverance from death is found: I instruct you, I preach the Law”.[18]
The way
to the removal of desire is to follow the Noble Eight-fold Path: Right Faith,
Right Resolve, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Living, Right Effort, Right
Thought, and Right Self-concentration.” [19]
Another name for the eight-fold path is the Middle Way. The Middle Way is a
righteous way of life that does not advocate the acceptance of decrees given by
someone outside of oneself[20].
The Eight-fold Path shows the final goal to human life. To attain the final
goal there are three aspects to be developed by the devotee. They are as
follows:
i. Sila – it mentions about the moral and
ethical conducts such as Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood.
ii. Samadhi – it mentions about the mental
disciplines. These factors are for the purification of the mind. They are Right
Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration. These factors, when
practiced, enable a person to strengthen and gain control over the mind,
thereby ensuring that his or her actions will continue to be good and that the
mind is being prepared to realize the Truth, which will open the door to
Freedom , to Enlightenment.[21]
iii. Panna: It consists of Right
Understanding and Right Thoughts.
The
Noble Eightfold Path is the most important truth taught by Buddha because this
Path eliminates Dukkha and leads a
person to Nirvana - the state where
there is no Dukkha. Moreover, the
eight fold noble path teaches every Buddhist to live a morally good life by
forsaking all evil deeds. [22].
4.1
The Ultimate Goal-Nirvana
The
religious goal of Buddhism is to attain Nirvana.
According to the teachings of Buddha one must learn to be detached from all
worldly attachments. Buddha taught that when a person lives a life of complete
detachment from all kinds of desire and all the precepts are been observed
faithfully, then the person is free from the cycle of rebirth. Moreover, no
dependency must be shown on anything or person to achieve liberation. Salvation
is achieved by one’s own efforts. While keeping with all the precepts and
following the noble paths one realizes that human beings is a combination of
the five aggregates which keep changing because of the impermanence of all
things. This is called suffering (dukkha).
By realizing that the reality is a component of impermanence (anicca), no-soul (anatta) and suffering (dukkha)
there are chances of attaining Nirvana.
[23] Buddhists work out their salvation
mainly by keeping the basic five fundamental precepts. Failing to keep up with
these fundamental precepts will stop them to attain Nirvana and they are once
again bound by the evil of suffering. [24]
Thus we
have seen that Buddhist believe that ‘existence entails suffering’[25].
In order to be free from suffering one must keep the five fundamental precepts
by following the Eight Noble Paths. Hence one of the common grounds to begin
talking about the essential matters is on the ground of morality. However, in
order to build bridges it becomes essential that we know what out Christian
faith teaches us on that regard.
5. THE CONCEPT OF SUFFERING IN
CHRISTIANITY
Suffering
persists as an important topic within Christianity. Suffering is a part of
life. It is also seen as a mystery where God who is so loving and compassionate
allows it. Nevertheless, unlike Buddhism, Christianity teaches to view
suffering positively rather than negatively.
Though
suffering is painful and beyond human understanding redemption through
suffering is found only in Christianity. And it exists because of the cross of
Christ. Not because the cross was a place of great suffering, which might
suggest suffering is in itself good, but because amidst the suffering, which is
in fact very bad, love triumphed over evil. Jesus who followed his calling to
the point of death, refused to give in to hatred even as he hung on the cross
and through his agonizing pain overcame the power of evil, symbolized by the
resurrection, by overwhelming evil with love.[26]
5.1 The Original Sin and Ultimate
Plan of Redemption
The Bible opens with a striking account of God as a
creator of all that we call “the world.” The creation account culminates with
God creating humankind in His image and likeness (Gen.1:26b). As we follow the
story, the Creator’s remarkable design, purpose of unity and relationship with
humankind is thwarted by human sin of disobedience and self will in rejecting
the Creator’s directives[27] (Gen.
3). The major reason
for suffering in Christianity is because of the first man Adam violating the
commandments of God. Thus in Christianity too breaking or not keeping the law
is sin and this as a result becomes the reason for Suffering. From this point onward the Biblical
narrative is dominated by God’s initiative to redeem the creation and sinful
humankind. [28]
God’s concern for humankind is constantly revealed
in and through the nation of Israel and finally through Jesus Christ who came
into the world to redeem, reconcile and restore the creation and humankind
through his life and suffering on the cross for the redemption of all
humankind.
5.2
Continuity with Suffering but Redemption in Christ
Even as suffering continued to be part of humankind
the purpose of Christ’s coming was to
bring human beings under the salvation plan so that human beings will have hope even in
suffering. As a human, Jesus Christ kept the law of God perfectly. As the sin
bearer of the elect, Christ died to make atonement for their sins, to restore
them to their position of righteousness under God.[29]
The redeemed are recalled to the original purpose of man, to exercise dominion
under God, to be covenant-keepers, and to fulfill “the righteousness of the
law” (Rom 8:4)[30] It is
clearly mentioned in Rom.
5:12 Wherefore, as by one man sin entered into the world, and death by sin;
and so death passed upon all men, for that all have sinned.
In
Buddhism to attain Nirvana a person has to adhere to the five precepts. It is a
complete dependence of one’s own self effort. But in Christianity it is not
self effort but the righteousness of God and the Grace of God given freely
through Christ’s life, death and resurrection which leads us to Salvation or
Freedom. This change is because of Jesus Christ and the grace that He offers to
all those who believe in Him.
5.3 Two Aspects of Sufferings in
Christianity`
There
are two sides of suffering in Christianity. As seen earlier, suffering is the
consequence of sin and it is continued through disobedience, selfish and sinful
life of humankind. The other side of suffering is that God, in all His wisdom
allows some to go through suffering for a period of time. The word suffering is
part of the certain expectation and inevitable character of the Christian life.[31]
God allows suffering to exist as a mark and means of discipline (Heb. 12:3).
Theoretically, suffering has some good purpose behind it and on the practical
level it is to be patiently endured.[32]
The best example of suffering can be learnt from Jesus Christ. Christ Himself
suffered on the Cross. His suffering turned into triumph which can be
symbolized in His resurrection. Therefore, a Christian’s response to suffering
must be based on an outlook towards these two historical events. The imitation
of Christ involves enduring suffering for the sake of good.[33]
6.
BUILDING BRIDGES TO ENGAGE WITH BUDDHISTS
While evangelizing to the Buddhist the gospel must
have a practical approach. The reason is that for the Buddhist the practical
aspect of sin and suffering might make sense to them rather than the
theoretical aspect. As Buddha always indicated that his aim was practical and
he never liked being dragged to the theoretical questions of the problem of
suffering.[34] The emphasis on areas of personal need and
how to fulfill the precepts of Buddha can be appealing to Buddhists, as their
belief system is weak in areas like sin and suffering.[35]
A bridge can be
built based on these areas to evangelize the Buddhist.
6.1 Ajana
and Kamma
According to
Buddhism, evil and suffering are the main products of human ignorance (ajnana).
Buddhism invokes the concept of karma and reincarnation. Tiwari asserts this
understanding of sufferings:
Moral
evils are all the direct results of attached, egoistic human actions and the
various natural evils (sufferings)
are also indirect consequences of these very actions. If one understands the
real nature of things and does
not perform such actions the world remaining as it is, he will not be affected by it, nirvana is possible in this very life.[36]
So it means that one has to be free from all sorts
of desires and passions of the world. However, in reality, humans are very much
aware and not ignorant of their sinful nature, selfishness and inescapable
desires then how can Nirvana be
possible? What Christ offers is the great awareness of one’s sinfulness and the
need for the salvation. Christianity not only offers salvation and victory over
the bondage of sin, sinful desires and passions but also gives a new hope for
the ultimate freedom from suffering.
Further
Buddhism explains this perception of suffering as induced by ignorance, which
affirms that the root cause for suffering is ignorance.[37]
But Buddhism fails to provide answer to who is the source of the ignorance and
does it lack true knowledge? Ravi Zachariah rightly asserts that the evil
cannot be both illusory and concrete.[38]
Tiwari while
commenting on the man’s after life and self regulated Moral Law raises few
questions:
There is no deity here who will judge the good and
the bad actions of man so as to either reward him or punish him accordingly.
But in saying all this Buddhism has to face a very serious problem and that is,
when there is no permanent soul in man, who migrates from one body to another
and who attains Nirvana. We have seen that Buddhism presents before us a theory
of no-soul (Anatmavada)…If such is the case, then where is the question of
rebirth or salvation? Who is reborn or who gets salvation? There is also no
question of the same person taking rebirth in the future life or getting
Nirvana, because in the absence of the permanent soul-substance, personal
identity cannot be maintained.[39]
So according to the above mentioned theory Buddhist
does not remain the same man even for a moment and even after rebirth and they
are not even sure who really judges their karma. But as we closely look at the
Bible’s teaching is clearly mentioned that
“it is appointed into men once to die, but after this the judgment” (Heb
9:27). In fact in this very context Jesus states that there is no direct connection
in the any previous act and the man’s condition, and the opportunity to choose
to believe God’s message is brief, after which there is no recourse. By
contrast and by definition, reincarnation is a recurring cycle of cause and
effect, till all infractions have been paid for and the absolute attained.”[40]
6.2
Sin and Suffering: Jesus the Redeemer and Hope
Daniel R. Heimbach, an
Associate Professor of Christian Ethics, at Southeastern Baptist Theological
Seminary comments that though Buddhists deny that suffering is real, they
are deeply concerned with overcoming suffering.[41]
While helping and engaging with Buddhist on the ground of sin and suffering,
Christians need to rightly emphasize Jesus Christ as He faced the reality of
suffering and overcame it by solving the problem of sin, which is as seen
earlier is the real source of suffering.
In Buddhism, the concept of Sin does not exist
explicitly but the idea is there. Sin is considered as breaking the precepts
and as a result becoming slave to evil deeds that is akusalaya kamma patha[42].
The law of moral causation which
is the central concept in this religion is related to the idea of liberation.
Here the belief is that good or bad deeds are accumulated in one’s life
according to one’s action. These actions
then become detrimental for ones after life. Therefore, in this religion a
person can do good merits on behalf of others so that they will at least be
delivered from the four woeful states. This transference of merit from the
living to the dead catalyzes the attainment of liberation (nirvana).[43]
The
Christian message is not that Christ will relieve or remove suffering but that
He assures His presence while one suffers. He gives hope of a future life free of suffering. With this hope one who trusts in Christ can rise above
suffering in this present life. The bible clearly demonstrates this truth: "We fix our eyes not on what is seen
[suffering], but on what is unseen [eternal life free of suffering]. For what
is seen [suffering] is temporary, but what is unseen [future good life with
Christ] is eternal" (2 Cor. 4:18, NIV).[44]
Jesus Christ’s life and suffering is the ultimate
bridge to evangelize Buddhist friends. According to the Bible Jesus fulfills
all the precepts of the Law which is similarly demanded by the Buddhist
precepts to achieve Nirvana. However, because of the inherent sinful nature of
human kind, it does not help the Christian or the Buddhist to fulfill the law
or achieve the righteousness or overcome suffering. The cross of Jesus is the
ultimate bridge between Buddhist and Christians because on the Cross Jesus not
only took all the sufferings of humankind but he also bore sin and shame to
redeem those who are under the law and precepts and in bondage of sin. It’s the
greatest demonstration of God’s love and the free gift of salvation to all
those who repent of their sins and believe in the work of Jesus.
6.3
Morality as a Bridge to Evangelize
Many aspects of ethical teaching in Buddhism seem to
coincide with biblical teaching; this prompts even serious people, from both
the Buddhist and the Christian side, to assume that these religions are in
essence the same.[45] The
moralities of the two religions are not far apart, and can be a bridge to
evangelize to the Buddhists world.
Further while making morality as ground for building
bridge, the sinless life of Jesus Christ and
His suffering on the cross for making humankind morally upright before
God is quite appropriate. The precepts that the Buddhists have to adhere
are very legalistic. They find no grace, compassion or forgiveness in their
religion. Thus life for them becomes very complicated. It almost seems
impossible to relieve oneself from suffering and hopeful future.
The Bible does not teach to rely on self efforts but
to totally depend on grace which Jesus offers with His unlimited merit as a
free gift to anyone who believes in him (Eph. 2:8–9).
CONCLUSION
D.T. Niles on the subject of the cause and cure for
suffering and sin, he concludes that there can be salvation from Dukkha (suffering), but only if we
recognize that the primary problem is not dukkha,
but Doha (sin). He explains:
For
life’s basic ill is not dukkha but doha- that attitude of rebellion and
disloyalty which we have toward God,
who is the ground of our being, the final cause of the world and the purpose
which gives meaning to life. The
cause of dukkha is my clinging to
self; it is the same self- centralism which
is also the cause of doha: the
unconscious or conscious assumption that I hold within myself the clue to life’s meaning and can of myself discover and
obey that clue. Dukkha comes as a
result of the self’s craving to satisfy itself with the things of this world:
doha comes as a result of the
self’s attempt at self-satisfaction.[46] Niles tries to emphasize that it is humans who are
the problem and not the world; it is one’s doha
and not the world’s dukkha that
needs primary solution. Moreover, there is no final solution in the present
humanity to the problem of evil and suffering both in us and in the world.
Ajith Fernando makes a profound concluding statement
on suffering. He quotes the Bible and says that “the suffering in the world has
been ultimately caused by sin upsetting God’s plan for the world...The Bible
also says that God can turn suffering into something good and calls us to
participate in this process of transforming suffering.”[47] Both Buddhists and Christians see the need for
deliverance from suffering. Building bridge to evangelize to Buddhist friends
has to be practically based where hope provided in and through Jesus is of
supreme importance.
Buddhists and Christians
have much to teach each other. Contemporary Buddhists are open and in engaging
with Buddhists to show them uniqueness in the suffering of Jesus Christ and how
He redeems through grace might help to introduce the Gospel. Christianity
promises not only an end to suffering and pain, but the continuation of
individuals in eternal life alike Nirvana-
a place where there is no suffering (dukkha).
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[1]
John T. Seamands, Tell it Well:
Communicating the Gospel across Cultures ( Missouri: Beacon Hill Press,1981),168.
[2] K.
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[3] Dhammananda, What Buddhists Believe, 123.
[4] Dhammananda, What Buddhists Believe, 123.
[5] Dhammananda, What Buddhists Believe, 190.
[6]
Leading a Buddhist Life and the Five Precepts
http://web.singnet.com.sg/~alankhoo/Precepts.htm (accessed 17 September, 2011).
[7] Leading a Buddhist Life and the
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[8] Dhammananda, What Buddhists believe, 210.
[9] Dhammananda, What Buddhists believe, 210.
[10] Dhammananda, What Buddhists believe, 210.
[11] Dhammananda, What Buddhists believe, 210.
[12] The Way to Nibbana: Lecture to the High Court Buddhist Association,
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[14]
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[17] Oldenbberg, Buddha,210
[18] Oldenbberg, Buddha,210.
[19] Oldenberg, Buddha, 211.
[20] Dhammanada, What Buddhists Believe, 102.
[21] Dhammanada What Buddhists Believe,108.
[22] Mark Naw Yaw Yet Thervada Buddhism in Myanmar: The Challenges
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[23] Naw Yaw Yet, Thervada Buddhism in Myanmar,63.
[24] Naw Yaw Yet, Thervada Buddhism in Myanmar,63.
[25]
Seamands,168.
[26]
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[27]
Wilbert R. Shenk, “Mission in Global
Perspective,” Mission Focus Annual Review 2005 Volume 13, 82-91.
[28] Shenk, “Mission
in Global Perspective,” 82-91.
[29] John, Rousas Rushdoony, The Institutes of Biblical Law, (USA : The Presbyterian and
Reformed Publishing Company,1973), 3.
[30] Rushdoony, The Institutes of Biblical Law,3.
[31] Michael Chong, “Suffering and Spiritual Formation in I
Thessalonians,” Journal of Asian Evangelical Theology 12 (2004) 180.
[32] Kedar Nath Tiwari Comparative Religion (Delhi: Motilalal
Banarsidass, 1997), 140.
[33] Tiwari Comparative Religion, 140.
[34] Tiwari Comparative Religio ,55.
[35]
Tiwari Comparative Religion ,55.
[36] Tiwari Comparative Religion, 56-57.
[37] Tiwari Comparative
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[38] Ravi Zacharias, Jesus among other Gods, (Chennai: RZIM
Life Focus Society,2000),120.
[39] Tiwari Comparative Religion,58.
[40] Zacharias, Jesus among other Gods, 120.
[41]
Daniel
R. Heimbach, The Evidence Bible.Com (Georgia: Southeastern Baptist
Theological Seminary), http://www.livingwaters.com/witnessingtool/buddhism.shtml
[42]
It is a Pali word which means evil deeds
or evil actions.
[43] Weerasinghan, “Karma
and Christ ( accessed on 10
September, 2011).
[44]Heimbach,
The
Evidence Bible (accessed
15 September 2011).
[45] Paul Wagner, Taking the High Places for God,
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on 10 September 2011).
[46] D.T.Niles, Buddhism and Claims of Christ, p.49 cited in John R. Davis Poles Apart: Contextualizing the Gospel in
Asia (Bangalore: National Printing Press, 1998), 91.
[47] Ajith Fernando, Relating To People of Other Faiths,
(Mumbai: GLS Publishing, n.d),210.
